The Definition and Discussion of Theology A Chapter Review

Chapter 3 Review The definition and discussion of theology that the author provides in this text is a very interesting perspective, and very different from many concepts of Evangelical theology that might be extrapolated from typical images and portrayals some of them accurate, and others perhaps not of self- or media-proclaimed Evangelical Christians today. Rather than calling for a strict doctrinal reading, Carlo asserts not that an appropriate theological perspective must necessarily take into account the time in which the theology is being drawn out and assessed. He raises many arguments to this end, and they are quite compelling both from practical and from purely rational lines of thinking that is, Carlo provides both empirical and logical evidence to back up his claim of the ever-changing nature and the inevitable adjustments and developments of world-relevant theologies. The discussion of historical theology is especially persuasive in helping Carlo make his point, as it points out a stark d isparity between the manner in which some people approach present theology and the way they approach the study of past theology. Human beings have a tendency to do this with all bodies of knowledge, where what is known today is assumed to be the final or definitive word despite the fact that what was known yesterday with the same degree of certainty is readily dismissed. If historical context is important for understanding the theology of previous eras, modern contextsShow MoreRelatedA Research Paper On The Quality Research906 Words   |  4 PagesThe reason this book is being reviewed is because this was one of our textbook for our book review. This book was for our class to understand how to write a research paper in higher standard. 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Letter of Recommendation Computer Science department Free Essays

As the Head of Computer Science department, it gives me immense pleasure to pen down a recommendation letter for an ambitious student like Sarang Metkar. A hardworking and intelligent student with an excellent grasping power is how I will describe Sarang. My association with him as a final year project guide is sufficient to gauge his intellectual capability and state his suitability for the graduate program from your University. We will write a custom essay sample on Letter of Recommendation Computer Science department or any similar topic only for you Order Now His never-ending quench for acquiring knowledge on new technologies was exhibited while working with him on his final year project. It was sponsored by Persistent Systems Ltd. They had a requirement to develop a web browser for directory servers like SunONE DS, IBM IDS and OpenLDAP, with LDAP as a communication protocol. His team showed a great perseverance in understanding the new concepts like LDAP and Directory Server. Impressed by the depth of knowledge they have acquired, I asked his team to present a seminar on LDAP and directory server to our college`s post-graduate students. He has an excellent presentation and communication skills with a clear understanding of concepts and can articulate his ideas effectively. He effectively coordinated communication with external project guide and maintained a proper document to track the requirements. He was prompt in suggesting different approaches to meet the requirements and equally flexible to incorporate any suggested changes. He was punctual and never hesitated to put more efforts to complete his task. His work was highly appreciated and earned him an offer to work as a Software Engineer in sponsoring company. Sarang consistently exceeded in all areas of his coursework and was amongst top 5% in the department. Owing to his excellent academic record, he was awarded merit scholarship for all four years. He also displayed a good interest in co-curricular activities and represented our college in various programming and quiz competition. Speaking of his leadership skill and organizing ability, he successfully coordinated a state-level Technical event named ‘Equinox’. He single handedly managed a C-programming competition, called ‘C-Netics’, in our Department which was a huge success. . He volunteered National-level workshops on â€Å"Emerging Trends in IT† and different chapters of Computer Society of India(CSI) conducted in our college. When elected as a ‘Class Representative’, he effectively discharged his duty of coordinating, managing and encouraging student participation. He possesses the intelligence and capacity for sustained hard work to ace the toughest program. By virtue of his strong academic foundation, he has developed the necessary aptitude, attitude and passion for pursuing the graduate education. In view of his inherent potential, strong determination and persistence, I believe that he will scale the highest peaks in his fields of interest and strongly endorse his application for admission to your esteemed institution with financial aid. How to cite Letter of Recommendation Computer Science department, Essay examples

Islamic Political Thought free essay sample

The division of spiritual and temporal in Christianity has taken a long time to be enacted into the political theory of the occidental mind. There is a long history of church rule behind today’s secular political thinking. Which recognizes religion as of no significance in the eye of the state. They have taken the sovereignty from God and put it into the hands of the people. In doing so they have declared collective human conscience as their guide and have rejected all sorts of scriptures of divine nature. This is leading these societies to moral ruin. Approval of homosexuality as a legal practice by the legislatures of some western countries is an indication of the moral collapse that awaits them. Although Islam has no division of spirit and mundane but still does not support theocracy or any other form of autocratic rule. It has taken a middle course, which can best be explained by the word â€Å"autonomous†. Giving the absolute power and responsibility of guidance in the hands of God, Islam lets the, Muslims to exercise unlimited sovereignty within the limits of Quran and Sunnah. Introduction This topic seemingly look very simple and the one which can have a straightforward answer. But actually it required a great insight into the historical and the political perspective of Islamic world at large. This proposition can be tackled at a number of levels. One scheme of addressing this question could be to go to the theological injunctions, that is, to argue from Quran and Hadith. The second approach could be of digging into the history and bringing out the relevant examples. There is yet another way of going through this riddle and that is to examine the evolution of political ideology in the world of Islam and comparing it with the political evolution of the other nations or rest of the world. We may adopt any of the above methodology. But in order to get a better view of things and comprehensive answer to this question. We analyze it at all the three above-mentioned levels. This will certainly render us a better understanding of not only this question but also of many other aspects of related political problems confronting the modern Muslim societies. Before beginning with our discussion it is useful that we first determine what sovereignty is? Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary describes sovereignty as: the highest power or fully independent and self-governing. Similarly Webster’s dictionary gives the following meanings to this word: â€Å"supreme leader or the one who exercise authority in a limited sphere†. Quranic Interpretation As for as simplest mind, which goes through the Quranic text, it cannot ignore the fact that the God, that is Allah, is omnipotent, all powerful and all governing. This is the first and the last impression, which Quran leaves on any mind, no matter how naive it may be. Contrary to many doctrines, Quran declares Allah to be the sole authority on every thing that is present not only in this world but the whole of the universe. Many Quranic verses can be quoted in this context. Blessed is the Lord who holds control over all and is Omnipotent. † (Al-mulk) And again: â€Å"Exalted is the One who controls every thing and to Him you shall resurrect. † (Ya-seen) This makes very cleat that every thing lies with Allah. It flows from thence unto His creatures. Same is the case with authority and sovereignty. Allah has send man on this earth as his vicegerent. Allah has given man sovereignty to reign on this world. As Quran says, â€Å"(remember) When your Lord said to angels that indeed I shall appoint a vicegerent on Earth. † (Al-baqarah) Thus, man rules earth on the behalf of his Lord. Therefore he can exercise sovereignty with in certain limits, prescribed by Allah. Once established that sovereignty is a reign were man has been given access. We find out whether men have been given some right to make decisions for themselves or not. Is a ruler selected by Allah and imposed on men or they are encouraged to exercise their sovereign right by some collective means? Now this is an arguable question. Some section may say that a king or some sort of ruler, imposed on the society by one way or the other, has the right to exercise the sovereignty that Allah has bestowed upon men. And we also find such a precedent in the Quran, from the story of Talloot and Jalloot in sura al-baqarah we come to know that kings were imposed on men without their will and consultation, what so ever. One may cite this example from the Holy book to give weight to his argument. But one thing must be kept in minds of the people that it was the practice of Allah for the people of Israel, usually referred to as Banu-Isreal in the Quran. Who were in a stage of evolution that was to culminate at the advent of the last Prophet Muhammad (P.B. U. H)? For us i. e. the ummah of the last prophet, this rule has changed. And the new scheme under which the sovereignty has to be exercised is given in the following verse: â€Å"And they conduct their affairs with mutual consultation. † (Shura) Thus we see that Quran encourages its followers to adopt a scheme of exercising their sovereignty over themselves by a way, which hinges itself over some system of broader consultation. Of the two views, latter is the one, which seems to be accurate and closer to the rationale thinking. From the above discussion, we have reached a conclusion that Quran does recognize the sovereignty of Muslim citizen in an Islamic state and they have to device such a methodology or system, which makes it convenient for them to achieve broader consultation. Quran, similarly, rejects a single person’s claim to sovereignty and authority. Who so ever becomes a ruler of a muslim state must take the views of the society while making decisions? Now the Quran does not let loose Muslims after giving them right to sovereignty. There are a number of responsibilities that the Quran puts on their shoulders. And Quran, in its own brief but effective manner, puts them as: â€Å"Those to whom we give power, must establish the system of prayers and charity and they ask the people to do good and forbid from doing evil. † Guidance from Sunnah Sunnah i. e. Prophet’s life and actions is the biggest source after the Holy (Quran). There fore, we refer our self to this source. As the Quran says, â€Å"Consult Allah and the Prophet in a matter of discord. † At another place it is mentioned: â€Å"Surely there is the best guidance for you in the life of the prophet. † We see that the early part of the Prophet hood of Prophet Muhammad (P.B. U. H) does not give us any clue of the relation of citizens and state. It is only the latter part of his Prophet hood i. e. Medina period, in which he established a city state that we find some form or structure of a government. Now we can have any debate on the question of citizen’s sovereignty in the eye of Islam basing our investigations on this period of Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H)’s life. It has become convenient, for at the very beginning of Medina period there is a record of a political agreement between all the cross-sections of population of Medina. This political document in itself, otherwise, is a very important and valuable document. It gives an insight into the political situation of the Muslims in particular and Medina and it’s surrounding in general. Coming back to the question we are confronted with. We investigate this document to find if it sheds any light on this particular question. The first clause, which defines the parties to the treaty, adequately addresses the sovereignty of the citizens. 1. This is the treaty between the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H), Aus and Khazraj (the helpers) and Jews of Medina and its surroundings. . Above-mentioned parties would be one group for the defense of Medina. 3. Every body is independent to practice ones religion. 4. Disputes among Jews would be settled according to their laws. It was an unprecedented treaty in respect of its very liberal approach towards communities of other religions. The point, which is very important for our thesis, is that everybody in Medina was treated as an equal party in this treaty. This was going to be the future constitution of that state for the rest of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H). Although the Jews broke this accord and had to pay its price. We do not talk about Jews as is mentioned above that they were left to their own laws. But the Divine laws governed Muslims. Which were revealed to the Prophet (P. B. U. H. ) from time to time. Thus we see that Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) in that state was the sole source of legislation. All the laws came from him. Many people misunderstand this phenomenon and they equate this authority of making laws by the Prophet Muhammad (P. BU. H) (that were revealed) as a precedent for authoritarian government by a single man. No, this approach is essentially flawed and contrary to the practice of the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H). If we examine his political life and circumstances prevalent at that time more carefully and keenly. Then we get to a conclusion rather different from the misunderstanding that has been indicated above. As we know that Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) was sent to a people who were totally ignorant, had never experienced any form of collective government and, therefore did not have laws and legislations. Further more, Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H)’s, messaged was meant for all times to come. Thus Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) was sent to such a neighborhood where he could construct a model beginning from scratch and having no influence of any previous system whatsoever. Now it was Prophet Muhammad’s (P. B. U. H) job to introduce to them a system of laws and governance based on the divine guidance, and through them he was to demonstrate it to all people for all times to come. Laws were of course revealed and Muslims had and have to obey them as such. But when it comes to governance, we have ample examples to quote; Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) mostly used the method of consultation. And this is what the message is that after the discontinuation of revelation, Muslims have to run their affairs in the light of revealed guidance by mutual consultation. To quote few examples from Prophet Muhammad’s (P. B. U. H) life, in order to support the notion that citizens of an Islamic state do have some rights to exercise sovereignty over themselves, we refer to the following instances from the Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) life: 1. As mentioned previously, in the very beginning of political history of the state of Medina general public i. e. Muslims were made an equal part in the matters of the governance. Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) did not make himself the sole representative of the whole Muslim community. 2. Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) appointed twelve representatives (Naqeebs) among the Ansar to represent them. 3. Before the battle of Badr Prophet Muhammad (P. B. U. H) consulted Muhajreen as well as Ansar. 4. In the battlefield of Badr, the camping place of the army was selected on the advice of Habbad-bin-Munzir. 5. At the time of Uhad , Prophet Muhammad’s (P. B. U. H) own opinion was to fight within the city but the general opinion was to fight outside the city, and that was followed. 6. In the battle of Ahzaab, the strategy of digging a trench for the defense of Medina was again an idea presented by Salman. 7. The method of calling the faithful to the prayer was again a matter sort out by mutual consultation. Hence at end of this chapter we conclude that Prophet Muhammad’s (P. B. U. H) life adequately provides us the evidence that in an Islamic state the power to rule and govern lies with the citizens and not with a single person or family or some creed. Rather it is the right of the people to govern themselves as they please, but of course not violating the Quranic limits set upon them. Those to whom we give power, must establish the system of prayers and charity and they ask the people to do good and forbid from doing evil. † Islamic History and Muslim Scholars We have come out of an academic discussion. Now we shall be analyzing historical events and political realities. As we enter into a new phase of discussion. It will be very useful that we revise and redefine the question we are confronted with. So when we ask this that â€Å"are people sovereign in Islam? † What do we actually mean to imply? What are the other questions, which confront us when we say, â€Å"yes people are sovereign†? Having proved that sole source of power and strength is the Allah Almighty; do we mean to say, that Allah and His angels are physically involved in the governance of a state? Of course not, is the obvious answer. It is the men themselves who shall be arranging for any type of government. After placing theoretically all powers in Allah, when sovereignty is given to citizens it means following things. 1. Any government that is formed will be only due to the consensus of the majority of people. 2. Whenever there is some decision to be made, again it will be referred to people. Whatever a government or the rulers do is accountable to public. 4. As the government or state has functional powers, thus checks and balances on it to safeguard people against any sort of tyranny or exploitation. Now we shall examine different types of governments in Islamic history on the basis of these above points. To begin with, we first analyze first four guided caliphs. Abu Bakr (R. A) was made caliphs and presented him in front of public. His first address is very suitable example. It encompasses almost all the above four points. He said: â€Å"O people! I have been made caliph against my will.